The Mesoamerican Venus Symbol In Venezuelan Rock Art

Domingo Sánchez P.

INTRODUCTION
Over the past twenty years, the author has studied the possible connections between Venezuelan rock art and the Venezuelan ethnic groups. Our research has been oriented as well toward the construction and confirmation of conclusions based on ethnographic literature on the cosmogonic and cosmological ideas of the former Venezuelan Indians, with their mythology and the Indians who are still living. Whenever possible, this has been done by comparing these ideas with the results of archaeological and anthropological research conducted in this country from the XIX century onwards. These studies have also relied upon bibliographical sources from chroniclers of the XVI and XVII centuries. Finally, we compared samples of rock art with a possible astronomical representation, keeping in mind that the former creators or actors of the rock art are no more among us, and, of course, we are also aware of the fact that, in our analysis nowadays, we can only expect to reach a contemporary interpretation of those figures left as rock paintings and petroglyphs. [1]

As a result of this study, we have found in some Venezuelan rock paintings and petroglyphs, discovered until year 2002, some symbols that in our opinion do have many features, remarkably similar to those found by other authors dedicated to the study of the Maya and Aztec cultures, as well as, there are significant resemblances between these Venezuelan symbols and others used in ancient cultures of North America and the Caribbean There still remains some questions not completely answered by the social sciences: how to decipher rock art and how and when the diffusion of cultural elements occurred from the cultural centers in Mesoamerica to South America and the Caribbean (if it was in this way). In research by Herbert J. Spinden about Diffusion of Maya Astronomy, when studying the Dresden and Vienna Codex, he arrived at this conclusion: "This and other astronomical data, which must be omitted for lack of space, show that the classical learning of the early Mayas was broadcast among other nations of Mexico an Guatemala during the two or three centuries preceding the coming of the Spaniards" (Spinden 1940:178). We know that the theory of diffusion has been practically discarded by anthropologists and archaeologists, but in our case we feel that it can not be denied that something significant occurred with the observation and representations of the Venus planet. Alfred Kidder II (1940) advanced a study titled "South American Penetrations in Middle America" giving sufficient references of what seems to be the case of possible diffusion from south to north. Venus was identified as a star or a planet, not only by the early American Indians (particularly in the North American Southwest, Mexico) but also and more importantly in the Maya case. Indigenous people in Venezuela identify Venus very often as the only planet visible to them. Their knowledge, still existing nowadays, is a secular heritage for this people. [2]

Another question is the interpretation of rock art in its possible relations with the astronomical bodies (sun, moon, comets, stars, etc.) with the aid of archeological and anthropological findings, and also with the linguistic and mythological links that connect with this area of knowledge. In previous investigations by the author (1994 to 2003), related to Astronomy in the culture of the seven Carib ethnic groups and also in the Warao, Wótuha, Yanomami, Sanemá and Wayúu Indians of Venezuela, we found one constant feature among the astronomical bodies observed and recognized by them. These groups established distinctive names for the following bodies (in this order): Sun, Moon, the Pleiades and Venus. Secondary to these ones, some other planets, stars and even some constellations, comets and meteors are identified. But the Venezuelan case is not unique in America, In this regard. Some comparisons can be made with the "high cultures" like the Maya, Inca, Aztec and Chibcha and also with many other aboriginal cultures of America and the Caribbean. That constant feature mentioned above seems to be repeated again being Venus the only planet recognized by many of them. [3]

This study attempts to demonstrate the existence in Venezuela of the Venus rock art symbol, equivalent to those found not only in Mesoamerica, but also in the Southwestern States of North America, and probably in the Caribbean and in Peru. Researchers specialized in our field of studies associate symbols found in these geographical areas to Venus. See for instance Polly Schaafsma (1980), Susan Milbrath (1999), and Dorcas S. Miller (1997). We realize that the interpretation of elements attributed to Venus representations require consistent evidences, not only linguistic but also archaeological and anthropological, to prove the hypothesis here presented. However we emphasized, that the aim of this paper is limited to the creation of avenues for further research on the matter. [4]

Due to methodological questions, we preferred to begin with the analysis of some of the many references to Venus in Mesoamerica. Then the Venus symbol itself, not only in Mesoamerica but also in the North American Southwest. We move on to several ethnographical mentions which stress and make salient the importance of the Venus planet, whose apparent brilliance and synodical movements, producing morning and afternoon apparitions, have occupied the attention of indigenous peoples all over America. Then we show and analyze examples found in Venezuela, for we believe they can make a contribution to the discussion about of those "Mesoamerican traces" in the Orinoco Area that Professor Acosta Saignes wrote about. This author, founder of the anthropological studies in Venezuela, pointed out cultural similarities between Mesoamerica and some of the ethnic groups settled in the Orinoco river borders. It is important to mention that, before Acosta Saignes, other authors like Paul Kirchoff with a work titled "Mesoamerica" (1943) and Julian Steward in "The Circum-Caribbean Tribes: An introduction" in the Handbook of South American Indians" (1948), treated in some way the question of the diffusion of several Mesoamerican traces in those areas. [5]


VENUS IN MESOAMERICA
Researchers related to Mesoamerica are numerous, due to the fact that it attracted the interest of social scientists since the middle of the XIX century. This interest increased in the early XX century and does not show signs of weakening. The same situation is applicable to cultures of Mexico and North America and particularly in reference to its Southwest. However, we will concentrate on the references related to the Venus planet, of which many registers are still conserved in the Codex that were saved from the Spanish conquerors' destruction. In the Maya culture, Venus was not only observed, as is the case for many of the ethnic groups all over America and the Caribbean. It was studied in all its orbital movements across the sky. One of the Spanish chroniclers, Diego de Landa, wrote about the Venus interest of the Maya saying that "They were guided at night in order to find the hour, based in their observations of twilight Venus apparition and also the Pleiades and the stars Castor and Pollux of the Twins constellation" (Morley 1972:274). As it is known, the orbital motion of this interior planet and due to the positions of the Sun and Earth, is visible for some time, disappears for another period of time and reappears again in the sky. One author, whose work is considered as a classic in the studies about the Maya, Silvanus G. Morley (1946) wrote, "Venus is one of the most important astronomical bodies observed by the old Maya astronomers. They seem to have had two names for Venus: Noh ek, for the great star and Xux ek, for the wasp star" (Morley 1972:274 - Translation from Spanish edition by the author). It is also known that the Maya calculated the synodic revolution of Venus in 583 days (as stated in the Dresden codex). The actual calculus is, according to modern astronomers, equal to 583,920 days. [6]

Another author, Michel D Coe (1975) notes that the Venus cult was not exclusive of the Maya. He wrote: "Venus was enormously important in Mesoamerican religion and mythology. A large body of myth relates to apotheosis of Quetzalcoatl-Kuculcan, the Feathered Serpent, as the Morning Star and he and the Evening Star were conceived as a pair of the Hero twins" (Coe 1975:20). [7]

There is still another reference about Venus designations used by the Maya in Weldon W. Lamb (1981) when he stated: "Several names designate the luminaries of dawn and dusk: Noh ek, "big star" glosses as "luminary" and "luminary of the morning. Chac ek, "great or red star" is "luminary of the day". "Luminary" or the morning star "is chac noh ek, "red, big star". Only noh ek and xux ek, "gasp star", explicitly refer to Venus as both the morning and evening star" (Lamb 1981:235). Finally, an additional reference is that Chaac was the Maya god of the rain. [8]

The influence of Maya culture expanded from the center of their territory, in Yucatan, to a region located in the south of the peninsula, due south east to Belize, Honduras, Guatemala, Nicaragua, El Salvador and due north to México and according to recent research due also to remote areas in the North American southwest. On the other hand, planet Venus was also known by the Inca, the Aymara, and Chibcha and in the Patagonia region, in Brazil, in the Guiana's and in the Caribbean. As we shall see later, the former Venezuelan ethnic groups knew planet Venus, after the Sun, Moon and the Pleiades. [9]


THE VENUS SYMBOL
About the identification of the glyphs with Venus in Mesoamerica, and particularly those glyphs created by the Maya, as far as we know there is much research and many publications confirming that kind of glyph. A seminal work in this regard was by Ernst Förstemann (1906), when studying the Dresden codex. Other authorized authors we might point out are: Sylvanus Morley (1972), Herbert J. Spinden (1928, 1940, 1957), Charles Smiley (1973), and Michael D. Coe (1975). Modern authors and archaeoastronomers like Polly Schaafsma (1980), Anthony Aveni (1993b), Susan Milbrath (1999), and others, could be included as well giving this abundance of references, we consider it is not necessary to insist on the one thing that has been fully confirmed: the existence of the Venus symbol in the Maya and other Indian cultures. [10]

As Herbert J. Spinden (1957) wrote: "The symbols of the planet Venus are pretty well ascertained. There are two principal forms. Also there are many irregular or unusual forms that include one of the simple signs combined with an animal or some other object. Venus symbols are of very common occurrence not only in astronomical bands but also as details on various sculptured figures and in the hieroglyphic inscriptions ... Some of the variant signs of the Venus symbol doubtless refer to different appearances and conjunctions of this planet" (Spinden 1957:92-93) (See figure 1a).The Maya identified planet Venus with a specific symbol, which was carved in one stela at La Mojarra on Mexico's Gulf Coast (See figure 1b) and is repeatedly shown at the Dresden Codex and has been also found in other Codexes. For the purpose of this research, we have decided to reprint the Maya symbol of Venus as a planetary entity (See figure 3). It consists mainly of a bordered or outlined cross with four small circles around it. About these four circles surrounding the original cruciform figure, we found an explanation: "The fact that there are four circles in a cross-shaped frame naturally suggests the four faces of Venus, associated with the four different directions. However, the same type of symbol can also refer to bright stars, as in the turtle constellation of Bonampak Room 2" (Milbrath 1999:187). In reading this book, we knew that Venus had some other representations: as a star with five points, as part of a face with two eyes, as half a star with a circle inside, etc. The example we chose (figure 3) is one of them that resembles the apparently most common one in North America, Venezuela and the Caribbean: an outlined cross, but without the four circles mentioned above. Starting with this symbol, we made the proper comparisons and found six rock art examples in Venezuela. [11]

As we have noticed before, Venus was associated by the Maya with the rain god Chaac. And also this planet was linked by the Maya to Kukulcan, the feathered serpent. The Aztec also related Venus with Quetzalcoatl, which is also in relation with the rain god Ehécatl. To prove the similarities between the Maya and Aztec symbols, please refer to figures 3 to 6. It is also pertinent to remember that the feathered serpent has a great and very interesting mythology in America. [12]

We made a survey of some of the North American symbols used or referred to Venus and/or stars, in the sources mentioned below. We found the following cases, where there is a rhomboidal figure full or a rhomboid figure only outlined, as a representation of the morning or evening star as Venus. This is the case of attached figures from the book "Stars of the First People" by Dorcas S. Miller 1997: 13 Chumash; 14 Albuquerque; 15 Hopi; 16 Kachinas Pueblo; 17 Sikidi Pawnee star chart (a); 18 Omaha. Let us remember that, for many people all around the world, Venus has been and is confused still at present with a star. It was only in the XVI century when astronomers discovered that Venus was a planet which appears at dawn or early in the morning resembling like a star. In the book by Dorcas S. Miller (1997) one finds that there are 48 entries about myths or ethnographic references to Venus as morning star, evening star or Venus with its own name in the vernacular languages of several ethnic groups as the: Chilcotin, Tlingit, Tinged, Kootenai, Thompson, Coeur d'Alene, Pawnee, Wichita, Omaha, Osage, Dakota, Assiniboin, Mandan, Crow, Blackfoot, Arapaho, South Paiute, Patwin, Pomo, Chumash, Luiseño, Pasamaquody, Iroqui, Seneca, Delaware, Fox, Tewa-Pueblo, Isleta, Zuni, Hopi, Navajo, Maricopla, Pima, Tohono O'odham, Cherokee, Creek, Seminole and Caddo, covering the Sub-arctic, Northwest, Great Basin, California, Northeast, Plateau, Great Plains, Southwest and Southeast cultural areas of North America (Miller, Dorcas S - 1997). And, as in Venezuela, all of them have vernacular designations or references and many Venus mythology relations. This goes to prove that these indigenous peoples distinguished Venus as a star. Many of them identify it as a morning or evening star. [13]

In an Internet site managed by archaeologist Boma Johnson, (Rock Art in the Southwest from Archaeology Plus) one finds the following: [14]

• Figure 31 - A Venus petroglyph

• Figure 32 - A double cross resembling "the death and rebirth of the Creator God Kumastambo of the Quechuan and Cocopah tribes of the Lower Colorado River" (Johnson, B - 2002:1)

• Figure 33 - Two Quetzal crosses surrounded by a serpent

• Figure 34 - An outlined cross alone with zoomorphic figures near it. (Unfortunately, we do not have the specific site and source references for these figures)

• Figure 35 - An outlined cross

As Boma Johnson says: "For many years, rock art researchers of the American Southwest have been familiar with the symbol known as the Outlined Cross or Venus Star which is representative of the early morning star Venus of the southwestern sky. Recently research has found that this star symbol is located throughout most of North and South America" (Johnson 2002:1). [15]

Reviewing the book Indian Rock Art in the Southwest, by Polly Schaafsma (1980) one finds the following: [16]

• Figure 36 - Red and green mask with star or cross symbolism at Hueco Tanks, Texas

• Figure 37 - Petroglyphs with faces and star with eagle feathers and talons, Rio Grande Style, Galisteo, New Mexico

• Figure 38 - Rock painting with star motifs at San Cristobal, Galisteo Basin, New Mexico

• Figure 39 - A petroglyph known as Navajo Planetarium, Canyon del Muerto, Arizona

• Figure 40 - Petroglyph with an outlined cross, zigzag and spiral element at Tularosa Box Reserve, New Mexico

• Figure 41 - Outlined cross at Tularosa Creek.

In the ethnographic literature about Mexico, there is a reference mentioned by Polly Schaafsma (1980) about the figure of Quetzalcoatl: "He occurs in the Mexican iconographic system in both anthropomorphic and serpent form, an he is also symbolized by the morning star, often in the form of an outlined cross (Villagrá 1954:80; Schaafsma 1980:238).  [17]

In summary, we have demonstrated with the several examples (which have not covered the entire rock art manifestations in North America or Mexico) that Venus, as a morning or evening star, was represented in North, Central, northern South America and the Caribbean by several geometric figures. These figures can be pointed out as follows: [18]

a) A rhomboid figure, full and/or empty
b) An outlined cross
c) A double outlined cross
d) An outlined cross with four small circles around.

Figures type a), b) and c) have been found in North America, Venezuela and the Caribbean and figure d) belongs to the Maya. We are not experts on iconography but we believe that the original figure a) might have become transformed later into an outlined cross, simple or double, being the case of the Maya a re-elaboration of figure b). This re-elaboration could have been made during the classic period or before, due to the excellent development of their civilization. [19]

The reason why we decided to use the Maya symbol to compare it with figures found in Venezuelan rock art is that the Maya dedicated very long periods of time focusing on the planet Venus. Anthony Aveni (1993) makes an estimate of centuries for that dedication. No other civilization before them had made such an effort. The Maya reached the conclusion that its synodic period was about 583 days, and dedicated to Venus the monumental palace constructed at Copan. Moreover, apart from this breathtaking tribute, the Maya created the myth of Kukulcan and the plumed serpent, which gave birth to another similar myth as the one of Quetzalcoatl, symbolized in Mexico by Venus. We know examples of that serpent figure found in the North American and also in Venezuelan rock art. There are also, in Venezuela, a group of myths referring to the big water serpent. [20]

Regarding this question, we may think of the following hypothesis: [21]

1. The original rhomboid figures, chronologically speaking, might have evolved to the outlined crosses and can be the original or older representations of Venus.

2. The outlined cross with the four circles belonging to the Maya might be the same previous Venus representation, adorned or completed by them, for reasons shown above, with these small circles. It was probably defined as the complete planet figure during the classic Maya period (250 - 900 AD).

3.  It is quite possibly that the original figure developed in North America, and was then subject to diffusion through Mexico, Central America and northern South America; or also from the Florida Peninsula through the Caribbean. But, unfortunately, proving this is not within the scope of the present investigation.
 

THE VENEZUELAN CASE STUDY
In an research titled Design in Venezuelan petroglyph (Ruby de Valencia, Jeannine Sujo, et al. - 1987), which is considered by this author as the first Venezuelan rock art catalogue, and in other sources consulted [Jose Maria Cruxent (1960), Lezek Zawiza (1968), Edgardo Gonzalez Niño (1979), Miguel A Perera and H A Moreno (1984, Pablo Novoa (1979,1980, 1982, 1984, 1985, 1999), L Segundo Romero (2000) and Liliana Abate (2002), the author has found evidences of rock paintings and petroglyphs with a symbol that resembles very much the one used by Maya in Mesoamerica. [22]

In the following table 1, we have included information from our own data base, references to the national catalogue, type as RP (means rock paintings) and P (petroglyphs), photo's authors, date of the photos, a reference to the pictures included in this paper, the location State in Venezuela, the former cultural area locations of the rock art manifestations and the ethnic groups occupying actually the mentioned areas. [23]

Table 1         Venus representations

Authors’ Data Base	National Catalog	Type	Photo's author	Date	Picture in this paper	State	Cultural Area	Ethnic Group (Actual)
179	Fig. 10	RP	José M Cruxent	1960	7	Amazonas	1	Wotuha (Piaroa)
180	169 / 334	P	Edgardo González Niño	1979	8	Amazonas	1	Wotuha (Piaroa)
181	348 / 343	RP	Pablo Novoa A	1985	9b	Amazonas	1	Wotuha – Eñepá
182	Fig.9,Grupo B	RP	M A Perera & H A Moreno	1984	10	Bolívar	1	Eñepá
184	28-0-3 / 221	P	Lezek Zawiza	1968	11	Vargas	2	None
185		P	Liliana Abate   (original)	2002	12	Yaracuy	3	None
186		RP	L Segundo Romero (original)	2000	13	Monagas	1	None
187	LY-9	P	Alexi Rojas & L Laffer	1992	25	Vargas	1	None
191		RP	Pablo Novoa A (original)	1985	9a	Amazonas	1	Wotu’ha
192		P	Pablo Novoa A (original)	1979	15b	Barinas	1	Ninguna
193		RP	Pablo Novoa A (original)	1982	16	Amazonas	1	Eñepá
194		RP	Pablo Novoa A (original)	1984	17	Amazonas	1	Eñepá
195		RP	Pablo Novoa A (original)	1984	18	Amazonas	1	Wo’tuha
196		P	Pablo Novoa A (original)	1980	19	Barinas	1	None
197		P	Pablo Novoa A (original)	1980	20	Brinas	2	None
198		P	Pablo Novoa A (original)	1980	21	Barinas	2	None
199		P	Pablo Novoa A (original)	1999	22	Falcón	2	None
200		P	Pablo Novoa A (original)	1999	23	Falcón	1	None
201		P	Pablo Novoa A (original)	1999	24	Falcón	1	None
202	189-0-2 / 233	P	Soliris Linares   (detail)	1979	15ª	Barinas	1	None
203	26-0-12 / 285	P	Jeaninne Sujo	1979	14	Cojedes	3	None

In order to try to make an approximation to the probable makers of the petroglyphs and rock paintings referred before, we refer to the concept of cultural areas as applied by anthropologists Sanoja & Vargas (1974), as follows: Area 1 covers the greatest area, approximately 60 % of the Venezuelan territory and was occupied by Indians belonging to the Carib, Arawak and Independent stocks. Area 2, situated in the central northern part, was predominantly occupied by Carib. And Area 3, at the northwestern of Area 2, was predominantly occupied by the Arawaks. [24]

Map 1


 Possible distribution of cultural areas before XVI century. From M. Sanoja and Iraida Vargas (1991: fig. 9)

As we know, dating of rock art is difficult and requires modern and costly technologies not available in Venezuela at present. For that reason we used the information available to us currently. With the idea of helping the reader, we decided to include information related to the approximate sites where the rock art manifestations compiled in the present study are located in the following map. [25]

Map 2


Blue sticks show the approximate sites of the rock art manifestations referred in this investigation

With the exception of Venezuelan rock paintings, design in petroglyphs is defined by Ruby de Valencia (1987) as follows: "predominantly frontal, two-dimensional, and linear, with marked inclination to the geometrical" (Valencia 1987:41). In an archaeological analysis, Jeanine Sujo V (1987) states: "The engraved lines were observed to be, on average 1,24 cm. deep and 1,71 cm. wide, although there is a slight difference in distribution, depending on whether the petroglyphs are north or south of the Orinoco" (Sujo 1987:117). Rock art (on pictures) 7, 8, 9, 10, 16, 17 and 18 are located south of the Orinoco River and 11, 12, 13, 14, 15, 19, 20, 21, 22, 23 and 24 are situated north of the Orinoco. [26]

The actual living Indians, in the case of Venezuela, do not recognize the rock art manifestations as belonging to them. All of them, with very few exceptions, refer to petroglyphs and rock paintings as "made by our very far ancestors". Our inference is based on a probable relation between Venus, as morning or evening star, and their mythology. The situation is, in all the cases studied in this research, that the ethnic groups who currently occupy the Venezuelan territory where the rock art manifestations mentioned above have been found, do have vernacular names to refer to Venus (as the only planet recognized by the majority of them). This is shown on Table 2. [27]


Table 2             Venus names      

Ethnic Group	Stock	Indigenous name
Baré	Arawakan	Uinade, Wuinadi,Wuinati
E´ñepá (Panare)	Cariban	Tosempetyomënë
Kari’ña	Cariban	Noposko
Pemón	Cariban	Kaiuanog, Kaiuanoi, Nimá Kaiwonó
Piapoko	Arawakan	Baluátami
Ye’kuana (Makiritare)	Cariban	Kumashi, Kumachi, Amaduwakadi
Wanai (Mapoyo)	Cariban	Kaputurutu
Warao	Independent	Anakura, Jokonakura
Wayúu	Arawakan	Jolotsü, Jolotsi
Wo’tuja (Piaroa)	Salivan	Mara’cirika, Mara’ye’éku’wá
Warekena	Arawakan	Kuliábali, Iwili Manúbali

Note: The words for Venus Indian names have been copied using the Spanish orthography.


In Table 2 we copied the names given to Venus in several of the current Indian languages in Venezuela. This means that all of them knew Venus and many of them do have myths related to Venus. However, this does not imply that the mythological meaning is the same for every group. [28]


CONCLUSIONS AND HYPOTHESES
Our conclusions can be ordered as follows:

Firstly, there is evidence that the Venus symbol used by the Maya culture in Mesoamerica and known also in Mexico, in North American Southwest and in the Caribbean, sufficiently documented by the bibliographical references consulted by the author, have been found in Venezuela, but in order to confirm or deny such hypothesis it is still necessary to complete this research. [29]

Secondly, the identification of that symbol eventually will confirm the knowledge of Venezuelan Indigenous peoples about Venus. It is important to note the relevance of this planet to them, especially for the Caribs, the Warao and particularly to the Wo'tuja (Piaroa). This knowledge has been proved by ethnographic and anthropological literature and also by their mythology. [30]

Finally, it seems necessary for us, to work on the completion of this study by researching and comparing these findings in Venezuela with the rock art at Cuba (Punta del Este); Dominican Republic (Sierra Prieta); Peru, Brazil, the Guiana's and the rest of Caribbean isles. In North America, it has been already been proven with rock art symbols attributed to planet Venus. Symbols found in México, and particularly in the Southwestern United States, probably will confirm our hypotheses about the influence of the Maya culture in this vast area. [31]

I firmly believe that the symbols found in the examples shown in my research on Venezuelan rock art are similar to the figures defined before, as: b) An outlined cross and c) A double outlined cross. They differ with the Maya glyph only (picture 3) because they do not have the four small circles around the central symbol. Finally, my paper should be taken as a guideline for further research and comparisons. Author Paul Bahn wrote in 1998: "Each interpretation reflects the times and beliefs of the interpreter...Many such hypotheses probably contain some truth, and can be applied to a sample of motifs, although we can never be sure to which or to how many" (Bahn 1998b:1). [32]


ILLUSTRATIONS

1a. The Venus symbols. According to H J. Spinden (1928:22).

1b. Earliest form of hieroglyph for Venus, according to epigrapher John Justeson. In a carved stela from La Mojarra on Mexico's Gulf Coast. Reprinted by permission of author Anthony Aveni

2. Venus symbols. Dresden Codex. Reproduction by permission of Fondo de Cultura Económica - Mexico

3. Maya glyph of Venus planet (Copan).
In: Aveni 1993:198 (From: Thompson 1986) In: Patterson, A -1992:76 (From: Seler 1963:19)
 



4. Petroglyphs from El Tecomate, Sinaloa
 

5. Petroglyph attributed to Quetzalcoatl
In Patterson (1992:76)




6. Petroglyphs from El Tecomate, Sinaloa
In Patterson (1992:76).

Note:The reproductions of figures 3, 4, 5 and 6 has being copied by permission of Johnson Books editors, Boulder, Colorado

VENUS SYMBOLS FOUND IN VENEZUELAN ROCK ART

7. Rock painting (179) José M. Cruxent 1960
 

8. Petroglyph (180) Edgardo González N 1979




9. Rock painting (191) Original photo. Pablo Novoa A 1985




10. Rock painting (182) M. Perera 1984
 

11. Petroglyph (184) Lezek Zawiza 1968




12. Petroglyph (185). Liliana Abate 2002.




13 - Rock painting (186). L Segundo Romero 2000.
Copied with permission from the author Lic. L Segundo Romero





14. Petroglyph (203) Jeannine Sujo 1979

15a. Petroglyph (202) (detail) Soliris Linares - 1999




15b. Petroglyph (192) Original photo of the rock. See 15ª - Pablo Novoa A 1979




16. Rock painting (193) Original photo. Pablo Novoa A 1985




17. Rock painting (194) Original photo. Pablo Novoa A 1984




18. Rock painting (195) Original photo - Pablo Novoa A 1984




19. Petroglyph (196) Original photo Pablo Novoa A 1980




20. Petroglyph (197) Original photo - Pablo Novoa A 1980




21. Petroglyph (198) Original photo - Pablo Novoa A 1980




22. Petgroglyph (199). Original photo - Pablo Novoa A 1999




23. Petroglyph (200). Original photo - Pablo Novoa A 1999. Note at left corner a double cross symbol.

24. Petroglyph panel (201). Original photo - Pablo Novoa A. 1999. See cross symbol at center.

FIGURES FROM NORTH AMERICA

25. (Fig. 9.)Possible star motifs and a comet (right) in Chumash rock art. (Illustrations from Grant, The Rock Paintings of the Chumash, fig. 75, 786, plate 25). Reprinted by permission from the author Dorcas S. Miller, 1997:158.




26. (Fig. 10.2) Star images. A star kachina near Albuquerque has a headdress of eagle feathers (center). Figures at center and right after Schaafsma: Rock Art in New Mexico. Figs. 132,142). Reprinted by permission from the author - Dorcas S. Miller - 1997:175.




27. (Fig. 10.9) A design from a Hopi kiva showing a) Orion, b) Pleiades c) Morning Star, and d) Moon. (Illustration from Parsons. Hopi Journal of Alexander M. Stephen. Fig. 143). Reprinted with permission. Dorcas S. Miller - 1997:185.




28. (Fig. 10.10) Hopi kachinas: (left) Coto, the Star kachina, with three stars on top of the mask, a star and crescent moon on the face, and stars in the forearms and legs; (right) Yuña, the Cactus Kashina, with star and (possibly) the Pleiades on the face and stars on breasts and arms. Native Americans in the Pueblos and elsewhere often used crosses to represent stars (Illustration after Fewkes. Two Summers' Work in Pueblo Ruins, plates 28, 49). Reprinted by permission from the author Dorcas S. Miller - 1997:185.



29. Fig. 11.3 This Skidi star chart of unknown age was given to James Murie, who printed it to the Field Museum of Natural History in Chicago in 1906. The buckskin chart was not meant to portray all the stars in the sky with precision but rather to remind the Skidi of the important of particular stars that guided them in their lives. The larger stars and those in patterns are shown here; not shown are many smaller stars seemingly scattered throughout the chart ... a) Evening Star (Venus) ...t) the Morning Star (Mars); u) Morning Stars Broker. (Illustration after Chamberlain, When Stars Came Down to Earth: Cosmology of the Skidi Pawnee Indians of North America (fig. 48). Reprinted by permission from the author Dorcas S Miller - 1997:222.





30 - (Fig. 11.6) Omaha tipi and robe with Morning Star designs. (Illustration after Dorsey, A Study of Siouan Cults, 398). Reprinted by permission from the author Dorcas S Miller - 1997:233.




31. Venus petroglyph without place identification - Boma Johnson




32. Double cross. Without place identification - Boma Johnson



33. Quetzal crosses. Without place identification - Boma Johnson




34. Venus symbol with zoomorphic figure. Without place identification - Boma Johnson




35. Venus symbol. Without place identification - Boma Johnson




36. Red and green mask with star or cross symbolism, Plate 18. Hueco Tanks, Texas. Polly Schaafsma 1980:207 Photograph, Karl Kernberger.




37. Faces and star with eagle feathers and talons. Fig. 220 Rio Grande Style petroglyph. Galisteo, New Mexico. Schaafsma, Polly 1980:272. Reprinted by permission, from Indian Rock Art of the Southwest by Polly Schaafsma. (c) 1980 by the School of American Research, Santa Fe, New Mexico, USA




38. Star motifs in rock painting - San Cristobel, Galisteo, New Mexico. Fig. 221 (Schaafsma1980:273). Reprinted with permission, by the School of American Research, Santa Fe, New Mexico, USA from Indian Rock Art of the Southwest by Polly Schaafsma. (c) 1980




39 - Navajo Planetarium, Canyon del Muerto, Arizona. Polly Schaafsma,1980:323 Photograph, Karl Kernberger.




40 - Outlined cross, zigzag and spiral element. Reserve Petroglyphs Style. Fig.149 Tularosa Box, Reserve. New Mexico. Cross approximately 10 inches across. Polly Schaafsma, 1980:194 - Photograph, Karl Kernberger.




41 - Outlined cross at Tularosa Creek. Polly Schaafsma "Rock Art in New Mexico" 1992, fig. 74 p 61. Photograph, Karl Kernberger. Museum of New Mexico Press. Reprinted by permission from the editors.

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
Thanks to M S Luis Fernando Angosto, member of FUNDESIN, for reading the original paper and for all his opinions and suggestions. Also to Prof. Liliana Abate for her courtesy in giving us a copy of her finding of a petroglyph at Nirgua during her research there. To Pablo Novoa Alavarez, who sent me additional original photos of rock art representations. To the editor of KACIKE for his comments and revisions of this paper.


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